2005 marked the twentieth anniversary of Mikhail Gorbachev’s appointment to the post of general secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU). That same year in the Islamic Republic of Iran (IRI) Hojjatoleslam Sayyed Mohammad Khatami, having served his second and constitutionally last term as president, left government service. These men attempted to breathe new life into the ideological polities that emerged from two of the greatest events of the twentieth century, the Great October Socialist Revolution of 1917 and the Islamic Revolution of 1979. These revolutions proclaimed new forms of universalist utopian modernities. In spring 1985 Gorbachev became general secretary. Believing the Soviet system had suffered political, economic, and social stagnation under the leadership of Leonid I. Brezhnev (1964-1982), Gorbachev launched and then became a victim of his politics of change, known as glasnost’ and perestroika. [download]
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